English for third year students

How to write an opinion article

HOW TO WRITE AN OPINION ARTICLE …

STEPS:

BRAINSTORMING: Think of some ideas that you want to include in the composition.

STRUCTURE: Organise your ideas into three paragraphs:

ü INTRODUCTION: Present the topic of the composition

ü BODY: Develop the topic

ü CONCLUSION: Summarise your ideas and give your opinion about the topic

FIRST DRAFT: Write a first draft of your composition.

LINKING WORDS: Link your ideas by means of different connectors:

ü STARTING: Firstly, …/ To start with…/ First of all…

üADDING INFORMATION: Moreover/ besides/ as well as

üGIVING EXAMPLES: For example/ For instance/ A good example can be

ü CONTRASTING: On the one hand, …/ on the other hand, …/ In contrast

üCONCLUDING: To conclude/ to sum up/ In conclusion/ In short.

FINAL STEP: Check any possible spelling mistakes in the dictionary. Be sure you have used the correct word for the meaning

Feelings and emotions

Topic1:

Having a sense of humour would prevent you from some illness and help you refresh your life. Explain.

Typical Essay:

Laughter – is surely the best medicine! We probably realize the importance of laughter only when we grow out of our childhood days. Do we really need a reason to laugh? I don’t really think so! However, with work stress on the rise, laughter therapy sessions are gaining attention worldwide. The benefits of laughter are many! However, one may not really get into the nitty-gritty of issues at a young age. The importance of laughter therapy is realized only when one loses the reason to laugh about the simplest of issues. Well, laughter surely is good for all and those who are unaware of the benefits need to read about the importance of laughter therapy.

Have you observed the beauty of a child especially when it bursts into uncontrollable peals of laughter? Well, that’s the beauty of laughter! Laughter therapy provides you a great way to get rid of stress. This is the best stress relief activity, which dissolves all feelings of irritation and anger.

Laughing also helps to motivate a person. This in turn, releases all the positive energy. A good session of loads of laughter would help one to release all the pent-up feelings that are really not healthy otherwise. Laughter helps to reduce feelings of grief and depression and create a sense of well-being. Daily sessions of laughter help to strengthen the immune system.
No matter how negative or dejected you feel, laughter is one such therapy that can uplift your emotional state to a very positive level.

A good sense of humor can help in enhancing your personality whether in professional or personal life. Laughter therapy can turn you into a better team member and you can turn out to be an effective person at communication.

The importance of laughter is something that can be felt and known from within. Don’t wait anymore, call up your buddies and ensure you have a good laugh over all the silly things you can recall!

Topic2:

Write a short newspaper article in which you describe the Algerian wedding customs.

Typical Essay:

In Algeria, as in all Arab countries, society revolves around religion and religious customs of Islam. Marriage in Algeria is taken very seriously and is considered by most as a sign of maturity. According to the Qur'an, marriage must be based upon love. Algeria's wedding customs amongst those following the Muslim religion are much the same as in other practicing Muslim communities.

Algerian men and women are free to marry whomever they wish as long as the marriage partner is approved by the family. Parents have a more realistic view and can give their children practical guidance in selecting the appropriate marriage mate. Typically a man will express his love for a woman to his mother who will in turn "investigate" the family of the woman as to suitability. If she is approved the family will approached the woman's family to propose the union. A date will be chosen to visit the mosque so as to begin the engagement.

Much preparation takes place from the time of engagement. The family will begin purchasing clothing, household goods, wool and gold. This is referred to as shoura. The couple will spend time together getting to know each other well, sharing opinions and preparing a home. In Islamic culture, husbands and wives are to make mutual decisions and have equal claims in the marriage, it is therefore vital that the couple know each other well and recognize the roles they will take on before marriage.

Algerians believe that the more money the spend on the wedding the more proud the family can be. Weeks before the actual wedding women begin gathering at the bride's house to prepare desserts such as makroud and baklava. The wedding meal will include couscous, meat and vegetables, the bigger the meal, the more generous the family is said to be.

Following the party, the bride is driven to the groom's home. Beautifully adorned in an intricate wedding gown, with make-up, excessive jewelery, and henna designs painted on her hands and feet, she is seated on a decorated chair in his house. All the guests dance and join in great reverie as they prepare to say farewell. The groom with then approach his bride and walk they shall walk out, husband and wife, whilst surrounded by cheering family members and friends.
Algerian wedding customs may vary slightly depending how orthodox the family is and if the people follow other religions. Algerian weddings are truly an explosion of emotion and color, perhaps you will be lucky enough to see a wedding procession during your holiday.

http://www.algeria.com/wedding-customs/

Topic3:

Write a short newspaper article in which you describe the different ways men and women express their feelings in various situations.

Typical Essay:

The death of a close friend or a relative, the occurrence of a natural disaster or an accident, and other fatalities are likely to generate feelings and emotions in people.

Actually the difference in reaction is more particularly a question of gender. Men will tend to hide their grief over the death of somebody they know, or they awe when they witness a tragedy; during a natural disaster, they will try not to panic and control their emotions; instead, they will react by taking steps to protect their families and neighbours. Women will show their emotions more openly. They will express their sadness and cry profusely when they learn about a relative’s death. Likewise, they will be rather shocked and terrified when they see an accident in which there are casualties. Finally, they are likely to lose their self-control, and fail to take the right decisions to protect themselves in an emergency.

The difference in response regarding the expression of love and affection will most likely follow the same pattern. Men always try to avoid excessive sentimentality. They generally avoid showing in verbal manner too much emotion and feelings to their families and showing concern, offering help or giving presents. Women are again prone to showing their feelings more openly. They would often use terms of endearment, and they often hug and kiss family members, especially children.

The differing levels of sensitivity between men and women concerning the facts of life are probably the reason why their marks of sympathy and affection are dissimilar. But the male and female attitudes are complementary, and both necessary for good human interaction.

Topic4:

Most people experience anxious feelings before an important event such as a big exam, business presentation or first date. Discuss.

Typical Essay:

Anxious feelings can plague us all from time to time. It’s not uncommon to worry about things like upcoming tests, job performance, the behavior or well-being of a child, or even patterns in our own behavior that are disturbing. While we all may worry or feel anxious occasionally, some people are more bogged down with anxiety, and find they cope with anxious feelings by changing their behavior. These changes may be for the better; if you feel anxious about your weight and start eating a healthy diet and exercising you’re probably benefiting yourself, putting anxious feelings to rest. But changes can also be for the worse; you suddenly avoid things in your life because participation in these things makes you so anxious.
Anxiety can cause sleeplessness, difficulty maintaining relationships, overmedicating with food, drink, sex and et cetera, and as mentioned, behavior avoidance. In severe cases, anxiety can cause us to have panic attacks, which can be challenging to overcome, and to many people may feel, when the attack is in progress, like they are dying or having a heart attack. Yet even anxiety that is simply making it hard to sleep at night is enough to have an overwhelmingly negative effect on your life.
There are a number of ways to cope with anxious feelings. If these feelings are pervasive, depriving your from sleep, changing the way you live your life, or causing panic attacks, it’s a good idea to seek help. First, you may want to see a therapist, since there are many helpful therapies to cope with anxious feelings. One of the chief advocated methods is called cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which can help you think about and contextualize your feelings. Anxiety may often be masking core beliefs or traumatic events, or deep sadness. Getting at what’s behind the anxiety with CBT has been proven effective for many.
When anxious feelings are still not put to rest with therapy alone, you may be suffering from generalized anxiety disorder or panic disorder. With help from a psychiatrist, you can find medications that will help regulate brain chemicals creating overly anxious responses to daily living. Medication and CBT are used together to cope with anxious feelings caused by a true medical disorder.
For mild feelings of anxiety, you may find relief talking to a friend, a school counselor, your parents, a pastor, or a trusted family friend. It can also help to consider how you are responding to mild anxiety. If anxious feeling cause you to hide in your room and not go to work, you’re probably only going to get more anxious. In the absence of true anxiety disorder, there are some things that can help cope with distressing feelings.
First, eat a healthy diet and avoid overeating to calm anxiety. Second, do not medicate anxiety with illegal drugs or drinking, which can quickly exacerbate your problem. Third, try to get exercise everyday. A 30-minute to hour-long walk helps stimulate production of chemicals that can make you feel more relaxed, and help you sleep better at night. Meditative exercises like Tai Chi and yoga can also be helpful, and many people find prayer, meditation or deep breathing exercises very calming to the mind.

Topic5:

Sadness is an emotion all people have at times. Discuss.

Typical Essay:

Sadness is an emotion all people feel at times. Few people can get through life without bouts of sadness. This emotion is a natural response to losses of many kinds: loss of a loved one, a pet, a relationship, or a job. Even when life is just challenging, we may find ourselves sad. Deciding the degree to which these feelings are normal and how you measure them is very difficult.
Sad feelings lasting for more than two weeks is fairly normal, especially if you have real reasons to be sad. The death of a spouse or child, for instance, will evoke powerful emotions that will make you grieve for a long time. Even a painful divorce can cause feelings of sadness to last for months or even years.
Even if you have legitimate reasons to feel sad, when that sadness seems overwhelming, all-encompassing, and is significantly interfering with your ability to continue your normal life, a good therapist or support group can help. Furthermore, when you have few reasons to really feel sad, and yet you do, this may not be “normal.” If you are constantly blue and depressed for little reason, this deserves medical attention because it may be caused by brain chemical imbalance. Major depression is a real disease, and many people respond well to treatment.
Determining whether your feelings are normal may take some deep self-scrutiny. It’s hard to go by the opinion of others. Most people find that others expect them to recover from even major grief, long before they do. In fact a common complaint among those grieving is that after a few intensive weeks when everyone is helpful, most people (friends, family) no longer want to listen or seem to bounce back to their normal lives while the grieving person still feels awful.
Even if medication is not appropriate to treating grief, therapy may be. With a few exceptions, most people will continue to be sad for a long time, and though this may be normal, it may not be tolerated in our society. Dealing with the attitudes of others who expect you to get immediately back on track can fuel your feelings even more, and having a therapist or a support group that understands how isolating sad feelings can be is of extraordinary help.

In sum, in the absence of any obvious causes, long-term sadness should be evaluated as potential depression. Suicidal thoughts and feelings deserve immediate medical attention. Yet sadness should be understood in the context it occurs, and when it occurs in context of true loss, the best help may be talk therapy and time.

Topic6:

Many people experience the feelings of grief and express them differently. Discuss.

Typical Essay:

Many assume that grief is associated only with the loss of a loved one. Psychology shows us that this is very often not the case, but those suffering grief from things other than the death of someone are often told to “snap out of it.” Grief is, quite simply put, a response to loss. The loss can be of something tangible or intangible. It helps to recognize that disappointments, abuse, recognizing one’s limitations, losing a job, or so many other things can elicit a grief response. People suffering a loss need time to grieve, and such time depends upon how important the loss was.
Everyone grieves in different ways. Some people stoically plow through loss and essentially feel working is the best way to deal with it. Others need to cry or keep themselves away from other people for a time. Elizabeth Kubler-Ross did great work on the stages of grief, which can help people gain understanding as to the process of grief.
Defining loss that will cause grief is very difficult. It depends much on the perception of the individual. For some people, losing a job is simply a life lesson. These people move onto the next job or job hunt without perceiving this as an emotional blow. For others, loss of a job could seem earth shattering, causing them to question all the decisions they made about their choice of career, or to feel great self-directed negativity.
Some people experience grief when they find out that a future path they wanted to take is now closed to them. For example, a woman who has tried to get pregnant and finds there is no way for her to do so, may mourn the future she expected to have, a future that included carrying and having her own children. Even if the loss is future directed, it can still cause grief in the present. Being shut out from wished for things can cause tremendous grief, again proportionate to a person’s perception.
Children grieve too, for small things, like a friend moving away or having to change schools. One expects a child to perhaps grieve at the death of a pet, but parents may fail to recognize the grief children feel during transitional times. Most therapists recommend that parents not dismiss their children’s first grieving experiences, as this may shape the way in which children are able to recognize grief, mourn, and at the appropriate time move on from the first sad feelings that grip them.
It is not necessary to encourage a child to grieve more, because again, children will respond in individual ways, as adults do. However, leaving open the opportunity for children to discuss their feelings, enabling them to express their feelings by giving them an emotional language, and practicing extra patience around a grieving child may be one of the best things one can do for such a child.

In considering grief, it’s important to remember that it is a response to many different kinds of losses, that is individual, and that it is influenced by the person’s perception of the loss. A couple that loses the ability to have children may grieve in very different ways. Of key importance is the recognition of grief instead of its dismissal. People cannot recover from grief they fail to acknowledge.

Topic7:

Many people are friends first and find over time their feelings change to those more romantic in nature. Discuss this state of emotional change.

Typical Essay:

Falling in love may be a common expression in much of the Western world but it isn’t used much elsewhere. The phrase may be connected to the idea of "falling head over heels," which was used in the 1300s, and is another term for being struck suddenly by great romantic attraction to someone else. Even with this connection, it can be hard to get a beat on what falling in love means, or what it feels like. Each person may define this experience somewhat differently.
Generally, when a person falls in love they have heightened romantic interest in someone else, and this doesn’t necessarily have to occur at first sight. Many people are friends first and find over time their feelings change to those more romantic in nature. They might want more from a relationship than just friendship and they may cherish more than friendly feelings for the person with whom they’ve fallen in love.
The word fall suggests that there’s a certain helplessness about these feelings of attraction, and they’re not necessarily within the control of the person stricken suddenly with great affection. It is true that people can’t always determine who or what attracts them, but they don’t have to be helpless in this regard. People can make choices about whether to act on romantic feelings. However, for those experiencing falling in love for the first few times, the feelings can seems so powerful that there seems little choice but to act upon them. Some people have challenges maturing out of this impulse, which can make forming lasting romantic relationships very difficult.
It would be hard to dispute that initial feelings of attraction and the “falling in love” state are powerful. For centuries, writers and poets have sung both the agonies and joys of discovering passionate feelings for someone else. Chaucer called this early “love” state the “dredful joye” representing both the pitfalls and ecstasy. Infatuation and romantic interest especially at the onset of a relationship can be both painful and exciting.
People have verifiable physiological reactions when in this early love state. A sight of the object of their affection may cause the pulse to race and the body to sweat. Certain neurotransmitters in the brain tend to be produced in greater volume, which can promote happiness and some anxiety. Yet most social scientists would agree that the reaction is not entirely a chemical one and involves the thinking brain and the emotions on numerous levels.

Topic8:

Children often want to know what it means to die but this would be problematic to many parents. Discuss.

Typical Essay:

It is unlikely that a child will make it through childhood without experiencing the death of a friend. When the death of a friend is unexpected, it can be challenging to break the news to a child. A very young child, who has never experience the death of a friend, pet or loved one, may not know how to react to such news.
Children often want to know what it means to die. For young children, this may mean explaining that physically, death is a process where the body stops working. Using euphemisms like passing on or went to sleep are not recommended, as they may cause the child to have concerns that they might accidentally die in their sleep.Children may also want to know what happens to a body after someone dies. In fact they may ask questions that can shock a parent. It’s considered best to treat such questions with accurate but simple facts.
Even with an explanation, after the death of a friend, children may not be able to grasp that a friend is really gone. If the family believes in some form of afterlife, this can prove comforting or perplexing. Children that believe in God may find themselves wondering why God caused the death of a friend. There is no one good way to approach this, except to assure the child that he or she is safe.
It can help to consult other parents or a grief counselor if you feel unable to answer your child’s questions. Grief counselors can help one navigate parenting through this tragic experience. When necessary, a child may benefit from some individual grief counseling or play therapy as well.
Older children may react differently to a death of a friend than a younger child. In fact teens often don’t want to discuss their feelings with parents. They may feel more comfortable discussing their thoughts with their peers. When the death of a friend is felt by a school community, for example, schools are often excellent at providing grief counseling and support to the students in the challenging months ahead.
Some parents feel that they shouldn’t show their own emotions about the death of a friend to children. However, psychologists often feel this is a mistake. While overblown screaming and crying might make the child worried, natural tears and feeling sad in front of child may help him or her understand they too can cry or feel sad. Parents and friends teach a lifelong lesson about how people grieve when they encounter the death of a friend. Responding with no emotion may well teach the child that emotional reaction is unacceptable.

Topic9:

Love is said to have different languages. Discuss.

Typical Essay

Dr. Gary Chapman, a Christian family counselor and author, has developed a relationship-building program called the 5 love languages. Love languages are defined as verbal and non-verbal communications between couples which improve the mental and physical well-being of both partners. These mutual expressions and actions help to build up a nurturing environment in which couples can improve both their emotional and physical intimacy levels.
The first of the five love languages includes words of affirmation. These words go far beyond a perfunctory "I love you" ritual, and include specific recognition of a partner's contributions to the relationship or the household or a career. The point of the exercise is to provide enough positive affirmation of a partner's self-worth to motivate that person towards even more personal growth. By telling a partner or friend or co-worker how much you appreciate his or her efforts, you are speaking in a language he or she can understand.
The second of the five love languages involves spending quality time with a loved one. This means setting aside a meaningful amount of personal time in which the friend or partner receives your complete and undivided attention. The idea is to have substantial conversations with another person, or take the time to indulge in a mutual interest, such as a movie or a hobby. Quality time can build up intimacy and trust in any relationship, romantic or otherwise.
Receiving gifts is the third component of Chapman's love languages. Almost everyone enjoys receiving personalized gifts from loved ones, and a surprise gift can be even more special. The ritual surrounding the presentation of a gift is often as satisfying as the gift itself. Some gifts are not necessarily tangible, but a spouse or friend can contribute a gift of time or a gift of their unique talents.
The fourth of the five love languages involves acts of service. A partner may volunteer to clean the house before the other partner returns home from work. A husband may decide to convert a garage into a craft room so his wife can pursue her interests and hobbies. The most important idea behind an act of services is that it must be unconditional and free of ulterior motives. A quid pro quo arrangement is not considered a true act of service.
The final element of the five love languages is physical touch. A back rub following a hard day at work would be an example of a positive expression of love language. A spouse may spontaneously scratch the other's back, or a father may give his son an affectionate pat on the shoulder after a good sports play. The point of physical touch is to satisfy the basic human need for close contact with others. People who feel isolated from others physically may begin to feel isolated on other levels as well.
Topic10:

Roses are often messengers of various feelings and emotions. Discuss what the different colours of roses can signify.

Typical Essay

Roses are the ultimate flower for expression of emotion or feeling. As a gift, roses can convey different meanings if the person receiving them knows the symbolism attached to the various colors of roses. Over the years, the meanings behind the different colors of roses have evolved to cover many sentiments. Before ordering a bouquet of roses for delivery, or to interpret possible meaning behind the last bouquet of roses you received, read on to learn the meanings associated with many common colors of roses.
Red is the most commonly given color of roses. Red signifies love and passion. True red is the rose for lovers. Fiery red roses signify passion, while cardinal red symbolizes desire. Fully bloomed red roses best convey the message “I still love you,” while red rose buds are a way to express love for the first time.
Yellow roses once meant jealousy, but today the yellow rose signifies friendship, familiar love, and domestic happiness. Yellow roses can also be an appropriate sentiment to express sympathy. Orange roses symbolize an expression of pride or amazement, while peach roses symbolize appreciation and desire. A bouquet of orange roses would be appropriate for a graduate or to commemorate a promotion, while peach could express sincere appreciation for someone’s accomplishments.
Pink roses signify elegance, gentility, and poetic romance, without the seriousness signified by red. Pink roses are more light-hearted than red and can signify mere admiration or sweetness of thought. Light pink roses can signify both sympathy and friendship, while dark pink is symbolic of appreciation and thankfulness. A mixture of pink and red roses signifies a romantic relationship.
White roses are sometimes called the “flower of light” and are the bride’s roses. They symbolize unity, sincerity, loyalty, purity, and a love stronger than death. White roses can be mixed with red to emphasize the meaning of love, while white rose buds are an appropriate gift to a young girl from her father.
Purple roses represent majestic glory and can symbolize eternal love, while lavender or lilac roses signify love at first sight or the beginning of true feelings. Purple roses are appropriate for wedding anniversaries beyond 25 years and as memorial flowers for a lost spouse. Deep purple roses should be reserved for intimate situations.
Black roses are symbolic of death. Many people view black roses as an omen, but they can signify change or rejuvenation on the horizon, as some rose buds appear black but then bloom into crimson red. The meaning of black roses may not be understood or well received as a gift, so you should avoid this color if you are at all unsure of the recipient’s beliefs.
Many colors of roses come in various shades, which can signify slightly different meanings from their primary colors. Mixing different colors together in one bouquet is an excellent way to convey a mixture of emotions when one sentiment is not enough.

Topic11:

There are many ways for a man to be a better husband and overcome his family problems. Discuss.

Typical Essay

Marriage is the joining of two people in a bond meant to last a lifetime. Unfortunately, as evidenced by the rising divorce rates, this is not always how it goes. Marriages can fall apart for many reasons, and it is usually the fault of both people involved. However, by trying to be a better husband, you can possibly save a marriage heading down a rocky road, or improve an already strong relationship.
The first way to be a better husband is to rekindle the romance. This is not as difficult as it may sound. Start small, especially if it’s been a while. Bring home some flowers, and hold doors open for your wife. Show her through little things that you love and admire her. Hold hands again, and cuddle on the couch while watching a movie. If you can afford gifts to show your affection, that’s fine, but most women would prefer that their husbands spend more time than money on them.
Learning to spend more time together is important when trying to be a better husband. Make time for each other, a few hours every week, at the very least. If you can carve out even a half hour of time a day, just for the two of you, that is even better. Schedule regular date nights, without the kids. In addition, take an active interest in your wife’s hobbies. If she loves to cook, sign yourselves up for some cooking classes. Spending time together doing something that she really enjoys can make your marriage stronger.
Take the time to talk things out, since communication is essential to a great marriage. To be a better husband, you must be willing to listen. This is especially important when there is an argument. Learn to fight fair, and listen to each other's concerns. If communication is difficult for you and your wife, consider marriage counseling, as a counselor can help you both learn to better relate to each other. Listening in a non-judgmental way, and learning to phrase complaints in a loving way, can solve a lot of the problems that most marriages face.
There are many ways to be a better husband. The best way is to remember why you fell in love in the first place. At the beginning of your relationship, you were each other's best friend, and considerate of each other’s feelings and opinions. As a marriage goes on, it is easy to lose sight of this. As you try to become a better husband, there is a very good possibility that your wife will respond to your efforts and become a better wife.
Topic12

No matter how much you love the area in which you live or how much you love your home, having an annoying neighbour can take away from your pleasure. Discuss what one can do with an troublesome neighbour.

Typical Essay

No matter how much you love the area in which you live or how much you love your home, having an annoying neighbour can take away from your pleasure. While it is often best to try to ignore minor or infrequent annoyances, that isn’t always possible with a particularly annoying neighbor. You may eventually have to confront the person who is keeping you from enjoying your home or yard.
If the transgression isn’t extreme but is still a nuisance or an inconvenient disturbance, consider approaching the annoying neighbour in a friendly manner. Invite him or her over for coffee, and attempt to discuss your complaint in a gentle way. In some cases, the person may not even be aware that his habits are bothersome.
A good example is a neighbour that mows his lawn late in the evening while you’re children are trying to sleep. It may be that he only wishes to cut grass when it’s not so hot outside, and he may not be aware of your children’s bedtime. Once aware, he may simply agree to mow earlier, and you will have settled the difference and may even end up liking your once annoying neighbor.
There are however some worse situations as well. If your annoying neighbour encroaches on your property, doesn’t maintain the home or yard appropriately, or does other things that could decrease your property value, you may have to call the appropriate agency to lodge a complaint if your neighbour fails to act after being asked to take care of the situation.
You may also find yourself living beside the kind of annoying neighbor that creates real problems. He or she might throw parties or play loud music, fight loudly with a boyfriend or girlfriend, drive too fast up and down the street, or engage in any number of inappropriate behaviors. The best way to approach this type of person is to avoid the heat of the moment confrontation. Don’t storm over to the annoying neighbour’s home while angry and while or while the person is drinking.
Problem neighbours can sometimes be dangerous, and you don’t want to find yourself in the middle of a physical altercation. You might approach the annoying neighbour at another time to ask for some consideration. You may also find that you have no choice but to call the police if the problems persist. This won’t help your relationship with your neighbour, so you might consider making the report anonymously. However, it may help quiet things down.

Astronomy and the solar system

Topic1:

It was only thanks to the astronomers that the world all around is well-known to us. Discuss.

Typical Essay:

An astronomer is a person who studies, classifies, and describes the phenomena of the heavens. The astronomer has been one of the most important roles in the modern scientific world, with some of the great leaps in methodology coming from the realm of astronomy. In the modern day, there are not many who identify as an astronomer, with the American Astronomical Society having less than 7,000 members, for example. Nonetheless, the concept of astronomer continues to fascinate the public as a romantic figure gazing skyward.
One of the most well-known people to bear the name astronomer was the 16th century astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus. Copernicus developed a heliocentric model of our solar system, placing the sun at the center and the Earth orbiting it, and in doing so turned most of the predominant world views of the time on their heads. Although a heliocentric model had been put forth by various brilliant minds from the world of Islam, India, and Greece, Copernicus laid his out in the West in such a way that it was impossible for the world to ignore.
Not long after Copernicus, the astronomer Galileo Galilei expanded on Copernicus’ views. He made the telescope substantially more effective than it had been, allowing the astronomer to make much more detailed observations, including viewing craters on the moon, sunspots, and four of the moons of Jupiter. Galileo was a devout Catholic, and in fact traveled to Rome to show the moons of Jupiter to the Jesuit Collegio Romano as evidence of the Copernican heliocentric model. The Church rejected Galileo’s views, and eventually found him highly suspected of heresy and placed under house arrest.
Sir Isaac Newton, in addition to his many other accomplishments, was an influential astronomer. Many of his observations led him to develop some of his grand theories of motion, gravitation, and physical dynamics. Edmond Halley, an 18th century astronomer, conceived of a theory of orbits for comets. He used this theory to predict a comet in 1682, which would eventually be named in his honor, as Halley’s Comet.
One of the fundamental historical distinctions of an astronomer is his or her reliance on observation to come up with theories. It is likely for this reason that the astronomer is such a romantic figure for most people. The heavens at night are awe inspiring for most, and a lifetime spent gazing into them and trying to plumb their mysteries is one that appeals to many. Although the romantic ideal of a wizened old man with his eye to a telescope may no longer truly exist, it has nonetheless inspired generation after generation to become excited about science.
In the modern age, two wonderful things have happened for the field of astronomy: quality has gone up, and price has gone down. This has allowed for a whole new wave of astronomers to crop up, but these are often amateurs. With a relatively small investment now, anyone can be an astronomer. In fact, some important discoveries over the past two decades have been by those who are far from professional astronomers. As technology continues to improve, it is likely that the role the amateur astronomer plays in identification of celestial phenomena with only increase.

Topic2:

Write a composition on the solar system.

Typical Essay:

The Solar System is made up of all the planets that orbit our Sun. In addition to planets, the Solar System also consists of moons, comets, asteroids, minor planets, and dust and gas.
Everything in the Solar System orbits or revolves around the Sun. The Sun contains around 98% of all the material in the Solar System. The larger an object is, the more gravity it has. Because the Sun is so large, its powerful gravity attracts all the other objects in the Solar System towards it. At the same time, these objects, which are moving very rapidly, try to fly away from the Sun, outward into the emptiness of outer space. The result of the planets trying to fly away, at the same time that the Sun is trying to pull them inward is that they become trapped half-way in between. Balanced between flying towards the Sun, and escaping into space, they spend eternity orbiting around their parent star.
How Did The Solar System form?
This is an important question, and one that is difficult for scientists to understand. After all, the creation of our Solar System took place billions of years before there were any people around to witness it. Our own evolution is tied closely to the evolution of the Solar System. Thus, without understanding from where the Solar System came from, it is difficult to comprehend how mankind came to be.
Scientists believe that the Solar System evolved from a giant cloud of dust and gas. They believe that this dust and gas began to collapse under the weight of its own gravity. As it did so, the matter in this could begin moving in a giant circle, much like the water in a drain moves around the center of the drain in a circle.
At the center of this spinning cloud, a small star began to form. This star grew larger and larger, as it collected more of the dust and gas that were collapsing into it.
Further away from the star that was forming in the center were smaller clumps of dust and gas that were also collapsing. The star in the center eventually ignited forming our Sun, while the smaller clumps became the planets, minor planets, moons, comets, and asteroids.

Topic3:

Many theories were formulated about the creation of the world. Choose one and discuss it.

Typical Essay:

In fact, it is difficult for scientists to understand how our world was created. After all, the creation of our world took place billions of years before there were any people around to witness it. Our own evolution is tied closely to the evolution of the Solar System. Thus, without understanding from where the Solar System came from, it is difficult to comprehend how mankind came to be.
Scientists believe that our world evolved from a giant cloud of dust and gas. They believe that this dust and gas began to collapse under the weight of its own gravity. As it did so, the matter in this could begin moving in a giant circle, much like the water in a drain moves around the center of the drain in a circle.
At the center of this spinning cloud, a small star began to form. This star grew larger and larger, as it collected more of the dust and gas that were collapsing into it.
Further away from the star that was forming in the center were smaller clumps of dust and gas that were also collapsing. The star in the center eventually ignited forming our Sun, while the smaller clumps became the planets, minor planets, moons, comets, and asteroids.
http://www.kidsastronomy.com/solar_system.htm

Topic4:

Suppose a comet collided with the earth. Write a composition predicting the consequences of such a collision.

Typical Composition :

For the most part, a comet is an object in the solar system that orbits the sun sometimes has a coma (or atmosphere) and a tail. These characteristics are added mostly because of the effects of solar radiation upon the comet's nucleus (the nucleus is made of rock, dust, ice, etc.).
The interesting thing is that comets' orbits are highly variable. First, they are almost always highly affected by close calls with major planets, sometimes even being moved into orbits that destroy them due to their nearness to the Sun. One of the reasons why comets are so easily moved is because the outgassing that creates their comas and tails propels them in mysterious and unpredictable ways. But if a comet collided with the earth, what would happen then?

If the comet were small enough (and we survived), probably something similar to the situation on the 15^th of April 1815, when volcanic eruptions of Mount Tambora ejected immense amounts of volcanic dust into the upper atmosphere, would happen." The year of 1816 (the year after) was often referred to as the Year Without a Summer.This is because so much dust, from only one volcano, blocked out so much sunlight that several people froze to death and crops around the world died. Prices for food skyrocketed and it caused a major problem in economy. The meteor that hit the Earth and resulted in the extinction of the dinosaurs probably kicked up 100 times to 1000 times as much dust as this volcano explosion.
So the consequences of such a supposed collision really depend on the size of the comet. The bigger it is, the more devastating its outcomes are.

http://www.secretsofsurvival.com/survival/comet_collision_with_earth.html

Topic5:

Write an essay on the importance of astronomy.

Typical Essay:

Astronomy is the study of celestial objects, phenomena, and origins. One of the oldest sciences, astronomy has been practiced since prehistoric times. Modern astronomy depends highly on accepted physical theories, such as Newton's Laws of Motion and general relativity. In the past, astronomy was something anyone could do, and many seers and sages made reputations for themselves by using the stars for useful functions, such as telling what time of the year it is, or navigating the seas. Columbus and his contemporaries used the stars to navigate across the Atlantic ocean.
It wasn't until the Renaissance that the theory of heliocentricity in astronomy, the idea that the Earth orbits the Sun rather than vice versa, began to acquire popular currency. Telescopes were invented in 1611 by Galileo Galilei, and he used his to take detailed observations of our Moon, which he revealed was mountainous, and observe Jupiter's four largest moons, now named the Galilean moons in his honor. Newton improved on Galileo's design, inventing the reflecting telescope, which is still used in optical telescopes to this day.
IN 1781, Sir William Herschel discovered the planet Uranus. In 1838, parallax — the slight difference in stellar position due to Earth's location in its orbit — was used to precisely determine the distance of stars. Neptune was discovered shortly thereafter. Pluto was discovered only as recently as 1930.
Modern astronomy is very complicated and expensive. Instead of only observing light rays, we observe radar, infrared, x-rays, and even cosmic rays. Orbital observatories such as the Hubble Space Telescope have produced the best images, include extremely high-resolution photographs of other galaxies.
In the mid-20th century, it was discovered that the universe was expanding. This, along with other evidence, led to the theory of the Big Bang, that the entire universe began as a point particle of extreme density. Later observations of the cosmic microwave background confirmed this, and the Big Bang continues as the primary theory of cosmological origins to this day.
The future of astronomy lies in the development of new observational technologies. One of interest is interferometry, sometimes called "hypertelescopes," which use a network of telescopes working cooperatively to resolve images. These could develop to the point where we can observe extrasolar planets with telescopes directly, instead of just detecting .

Topic6:

Galileo is often called “the Father of Observational Astronomy”. Discuss.

Typical Essay:

Galileo Galilei was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer and philosopher who has been called “the Father of Modern Science”. Born on 15 February 1564 in Pisa, Italy, Galileo is known for greatly improving the telescope from only 3X magnification to 32X magnification, discovering the moons of Jupiter, observing hills and valleys on the Moon, discovering and analyzing sunspots, popularizing laws of motion for uniformly accelerated objects, making the compound microscope practical, being one of the first to understand sound frequency, and being one of the most ardent advocates of the theory of heliocentrism. Galileo was among the first people in Europe to practice rigorous scientific standards, setting up formal experiments and describing the results using mathematics.
Galileo is probably best known for his advocacy of heliocentrism, the idea that the Earth orbits the Sun rather than vice versa. This was known as the Copernican theory after its inventor, Nicolaus Copernicus. Galileo based his support of Copernicanism after his observations of the satellites of Jupiter – this was the first discovery of celestial bodies that did not supposedly orbit the Earth. If the satellites of Jupiter orbited Jupiter, then could not the Earth orbit the Sun? Unfortunately, this idea was condemned as heresy, and Galileo was put on trial under the Inquisition in 1633. Narrowly avoiding imprisonment, Galileo was put under house arrest until his death in 1642 at age 77.
Galileo is famed for independently creating his own telescope after merely hearing about the concept while visiting Venice in 1608. The basic concept is simple – the combination of a concave and convex lens – but the telescope had only been invented that very year, by Dutch spectacle makers. In March 1610, Galileo published his initial astronomical observations in a short work entitled Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger).
There is a legend that Galileo dropped objects off the Leaning Tower of Pisa as a way of testing the different speeds at which they fell, but this was more likely a thought experiment. In reality, Galileo performed similar experiments with inclined planes that led to the same conclusion. The conclusion, contrary to the Aristotlean wisdom which had held for over a thousand years before, was that objects fall at the same speed regardless of their weight. Heavier objects are just often larger, and therefore slightly more susceptible to air friction. Galileo was not the first modern thinker to realize this, but he played a crucial role in popularizing it.
Because of all his contributions to physics, engineering, and astronomy, Galileo is often called “the Father of Observational Astronomy,” “the Father of Modern Physics,” and other such titles. His basic insights about physics are taught in high schools worldwide.

Topic7:

Long ago, astronomers spotted a galaxy far away and wondered why it was giving birth to so many stars. Discuss.

Typical Essay:

A galaxy is a cluster of stars, nebulae, dark matter, and other astronomical objects. Most galaxies are tens of thousands of light years in diameter, and contain billions of stars. Galaxies come in three primary shapes; spiral galaxies are thin disks, with spiral arms surrounding a central hub; elliptical galaxies are uniform, oval-shaped agglomerations; and irregular galaxies have little or no definite structure.
A spiral galaxy centers around a hub, which is roughly spherical and bulges outward from the disk. The hub is the gravitational center of the galaxy, and usually contains a supermassive black hole. Surrounding the hub are spiral arms, which are bunched-up waves of stars and gas orbiting the center. The spiral arms usually have more gas and dust, and they contain most of the newly formed stars, which make them appear blue in color imagery. A spiral galaxy may have a horizontal bar passing through its hub; our own galaxy, the Milky Way, is believed to contain a bar.
Elliptical galaxies have a large, central hub, but they lack the arms of a spiral galaxy; they usually appear more yellowish in color imagery from old, reddish stars. Irregular galaxies often have no discernible structure, but often they can be recognized as having a distorted spiral or elliptical shape. Elliptical and irregular galaxies often result from collisions, which cause large bursts of star formation and distort the galaxies' structure due to the complex gravitational interactions. Eventually, the two galaxies usually merge to form one large galaxy, which has cast off most of its gas and dust clouds.
There are roughly a hundred billion galaxies in the visible universe; most of them occur in large agglomerations called galaxy superclusters. Between these superclusters are voids with few or no galaxies, often for a hundred million light years or more. By studying the rotation of spiral galaxies, astronomers found that most of the matter in the universe is not stars and gas, but invisible “dark matter” which cannot be seen but still exerts gravity. Dark matter is thought to be responsible for these large clusters, as the gravitational attraction of the dark matter pulled galaxies together.

Topic8:

Unlike the other small bodies in the solar system, comets have been known since antiquity. Discuss.

Typical Essay:

A comet is a small astral body, similar in construction to a planet. A comet may have an unusual orbit, which may at times bring the comet close to the sun and make it visible to the naked eye, or through relatively low strength telescopes. When such a comet can be viewed it is usually noted as having a tail, made of gasses, which early astronomers often mistook for a shooting star.
Most observable comets in our solar system derive from the Oort Cloud, a hypothesized cloud made up of leavings from the sun. These materials form comets, which orbit the sun because are then affected by the gravitational pull of the sun and other planets. While passing by individual planets, the comet may be affected by the gravitational forces of the planets, thus causing an elliptical or oval-type orbit.
Usually, people on earth see a comet when the comet passes in between earth and the sun. It is thought that the comet and its tail, sometimes called the coma and tail, reflect the light of the sun, enhancing visibility. Since comets may orbit the sun in such strange patterns, people may only see the passage of one comet in a lifetime.
In fact, comets are usually classed by the length of time it takes them to orbit the sun. A short period comet takes about 200 years or less to make a full trip around the sun. A long period comet may take far more than 200 years to complete a trip.
For example Halley’s Comet can be viewed on earth about every 75 years. This marks it as a short period comet. Its last sight on earth was in 1986, and it is expected to be seen again in 2061.
A planet may capture a comet and the result can cause significant damage to the comet. Such a gravitational capture may result in the comet breaking into many small pieces, and these smaller pieces can then break off from the comet and hit the capturing planet. Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, was observed as broken in 1993, and astronomers were able to witness it hitting the atmosphere of Jupiter in 1994.
Most often people looking at the night sky may think that they see “falling stars” which are actually meteors or comets. There are thousands of tiny comets that do not attract much interest. The once in a lifetime comet like Halley’s are often thought of as exciting, since most people will only see them with the naked eye once.

Topic8:

Most people looking at the night sky may think that they see “falling stars” which are actually meteors or comets. Discuss the difference between a meteor and a comet.

Typical Essay:

There are quite a few objects in the universe capable of causing a really, really bad day on planet Earth, including a wayward comet or large asteroid. Most meteors, however, barely rate a 'ho-hum' on an astronomer's scale of scary extraterrestrial events. There are a number of differences between a comet and a meteor, from their general composition to the roles they play in the universe.
A comet is a celestial object believed to be composed primarily of space dust and frozen gases. The birthplace of a comet is thought to be somewhere in the outer parts of the universe, not related to the formation of our solar system at all. A comet follows an orbit that may bring it close to a star, such as our own Sun. As the comet approaches the star, a portion of its ice core may melt and release a trail of dust-sized particles. This cycle can continue for millions of years.
A meteor, on the other hand, does not follow an orbit around the sun. It isn't even called a meteor while it remains floating in outer space – it's called a meteoroid. Only when it enters the Earth's atmosphere is it considered a true meteor.
When the Earth passes through a comet trail or debris field, individual meteoroids hit or skip across the first layers of the atmosphere. Observers on Earth may be fortunate enough to see the last few seconds of a meteor's existence as it streaks across the sky and burns up. Unlike a comet, a meteor will not return a number of years later.
A comet rarely passes within a few million miles of the Earth, while a meteor by its very definition must strike the first layers of the Earth's atmosphere. A comet's arrival can be predicted with some degree of accuracy, but a meteor can enter the Earth's atmosphere at any time of the day or night. A comet can rarely be seen by the naked eye, but during a meteor shower, it is not unusual to see dozens or even hundreds of meteors within a few hours.

A comet also receives an official name for identification, such as Swift-Tuttle, Hale-Bopp or Halley's Comet. A few large asteroids may receive identifying names as well, but meteors do not. Virtually all meteors cease to exist once they've entered the Earth's atmosphere. A rare few make it to the ground, however. Once a meteor has made contact with the Earth's surface, it becomes known as a meteorite. While a comet may be composed of space dust, organic materials and ice, most meteors contain elemental metals, such as iron, along with inorganic minerals such as quartz.

Topic9:

Cosmologists and astronomers predicted an expanding universe. Discuss.

Typical Essay:

Ever since Einstein's theory of general relativity was applied to what is known about the universe as a whole, it has been suspected that the universe was expanding. When Edwin Hubble and Milton Humason discovered in the 1920s that practically all galaxies in the sky were moving away from us at great speeds, this boosted suspicions that the universe was expanding at a rapid rate. Yet it was not until 2000 that decisive evidence was finally found in favor of the universe's expansion, in the form of extensive redshift surveys of very distant objects.
The expanding universe is often cited as the most significant finding in modern cosmology. In Einstein's time, the steady-state theory was the predominant one, which stated that the universe remained balanced at the same size. Einstein, whose equations predicted universal expansion or contraction but not stasis, artificially introduced a stabilizing variable into his equations, called the "cosmological constant." After realizing from Hubble's observations that the universe was likely expanding, he later called this his "greatest blunder."
The phenomenon that first led cosmologists and astronomers to predict an expanding universe was Hubble's analysis of redshift. Using the Mount Wilson Observatory, which was the best telescope in the world at the time, Hubble viewed distant galaxies and saw they looked progressively redde. He looked further away in space, and by extension, further back in time as well, as light takes many billions of years to travel from these galaxies to Earth. Because the redness factor correlated so well with increases in distance, Hubble suspected this was a reliable phenomenon with a physical cause.
The cause was determined to be as follows: as the universe expands, the underlying space increases in volume, but the light traveling through it remains the same. The expanding space stretches out the wavelength of the light, making it longer and thereby redder. An analogy sometimes used is dots on the surface of an expanding balloon. Draw a wave pattern on a balloon, and while you blow it up, notice how the wave stretches out and becomes longer. This is the same principle behind the phenomenon of redshift.
In 1998, it was discovered not only that the universe is expanding, but that it is likely expanding at an accelerating rate. The physical reason for this is chalked up to a mysterious "dark energy," so named because we barely know a thing about it.

Topic10:

Satellites facilitated space research. Discuss what a satellite is.

Typical Essay:

A satellite can be defined as any object, either manmade or naturally occurring, that orbits around something else. For example, the moon orbits around Earth and is thus a satellite. The Earth orbits around the sun and is a satellite of the sun. Other examples of naturally occurring satellites include comets, stars, asteroids, and other planets.

Orbit is determined by the gravitational pull of the object around which the satellite circles. The thing around which a satellite circles is called the primary object. However, primary objects are also affected by their satellites, and feel some of their gravitational pull. In some cases, when two objects have a similar size and weight (mass), and a similar gravitational pull, they may be called binary systems, rather than being called a primary object and a satellite. Some argue that Pluto’s moon Charon, and Pluto, represent a binary system instead of a primary object and satellite, since both have similar mass.
Most are more familiar with the term satellite in relationship to the many satellites that circulate the earth. Sputnik was the first artificial satellite, launched in 1957 by the Soviet Union. The launching of Sputnik is almost analogous for the beginning of the Space Race that followed between the US and the USSR. In today’s climate, however, many countries have found that a cooperative effort is more successful in space exploration and studies. The International Space Station, a satellite that orbits earth, is currently the largest manmade satellite in Space, and represents the cooperative effort of numerous countries.
Manmade satellites are classified by types, and there are over ten types. Some of the main types of satellite used today include astronomical satellites, communication satellites, earth observation satellites, weather satellites and space stations. Other types of satellites include those used to monitor earth from a military standpoint, and biosatellites, which may carry animals or other lifeforms for the purpose of research on earth lifeforms in space. Navigational satellites are now popular and form a vital part of the global positioning system (GPS) now available in many cars.
Satellites may also be classified by the height at which they orbit earth or another body. A low earth orbit circles the earth at a height of 0-1240 miles (1995.59 km). High earth orbits can be as far away as 22,240 miles (35,791.81 km). Medium earth orbits represent the distance in between high and low earth orbits.Further distinctions exist to describe the type of orbit a manmade or natural satellite has. For example, Pluto has a slightly elliptical orbit. Also a satellite is often classed by what primary object it orbits. A satellite that circles the Earth has a geocentric orbit, for example. The earth, and the planets in our solar system are classed as having a heliocentric orbit since they circle the sun.
A manmade satellite can serve many purposes. We currently use many different types of satellite s ystems to track things like weather, to make our cellphones work, to find out how to get somewhere and to gather more information about earth, and about the galaxy. About 5000 manmade satellites currently orbit earth, and on clear dark nights, it’s often possible to see one in the night sky. Of course, viewing a planet, the stars, or comets is also viewing a satellite. We also must remember, we live on a satellite, and are not stationary in the sky.

Topic11:
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)contributed much to astronomy. Discuss.

Typical Essay:

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an American government agency which runs the civilian arm of the space program. The aim of NASA is to increase human understanding of the solar system and the universe that contains it, and to improve American aeronautics ability. Under its charter, NASA is supposed to be a peacetime agency that does not perform military functions, although NASA does cooperate with the military, and many NASA employees have a military background. To achieve this goal, NASA has an annual budget which can be counted in the billions to fund programs and pay tens of thousands of employees.
NASA was founded in 1958, in response to the Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957. The early years of the organization were driven by Cold War competitiveness, and NASA quickly worked on creating rockets which would allow for manned spaceflight. NASA astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were the first humans known to have set foot on the moon in 1969, an action that was considered a major victory for American aeronautics. Riding on this early success, NASA continued development of aeronautic equipment designed to function outside the Earth's atmosphere.
After the moon landing, NASA focused on doing research around the solar system, sending an assortment of manned flights to the moon to collect material for study, and unmanned drones to other planets to collect data. These flights have collected large amounts of data which are constantly being added to and analyzed. Scientific advancement is a large part of NASA's mission. With the assistance of the agency, scientists have been able to conduct experiments in the zero gravity environment of space, and test hypotheses about the universe.
NASA also continues to work on a space shuttle program to make space more accessible. As of 2007, the space shuttle had made 112 flights with astronauts from many nations including the United States, and two of these flights, the Challenger and Columbia, were lost. NASA plans to resume manned flights to the moon by 2020, after safety improvements have been made to the space shuttle.
As part of its mission as a peaceful agency, NASA cooperates with agencies within the United States and international aeronautics agencies. A NASA astronaut can usually be found on board the International Space Station, and astronauts from other nations are invited to participate in NASA events. This fostering of international cooperation will hopefully continue as humans explore space and the possibility of off-Earth human settlements becomes possible.

English for third year students